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Date: Tue, 1 Apr 1997 01:05:53 +0000
Subject: A Study of Jerusalem - Part VII
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Subject: 7: Jerusalem
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INGEBORG RENNERT CENTER FOR JERUSALEM STUDIES
BAR-ILAN UNIVERSITY 31 March 1997
RAMAT-GAN, ISRAEL
Internet Educational Activities <iea@netvision.net.il>
************************************************************************
David Eisenstadt
Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City
7/1 Sancta Hierosolymitana - Jerusalem in the Byzantine Period (324 C.E. =
-
638 C.E.)
Introduction
This lecture focuses on Jerusalem becoming a Christian city for the first =
time
in its history.
The religious transformation was to alter the physical and human landscape=
of
Jerusalem for the next 1500 years.
The Roman empire was still pagan at the beginning of the fourth century C.=
E.
Christianity, however, was rapidly gaining adherents. While Christianity
still remained an illegal religion in the Roman empire, Christians began t=
o
wield considerable influence. Several differing accounts describe the Emp=
eror
Constantines decision to adopt, or prefer, Christianity as his religion. =
Some
attribute it to revelation, while others claim it derived from miraculous
success in a battle on the banks of the Tiber river in 312 C.E. Regardles=
s of
his motivation, in 313 C.E. Constantine issued the Edict of Milan=B6 decl=
aring
Christianity to be (religio licita) a legal religion. In practice this me=
ant
that Christianity became the official religion of the Roman empire. This,
however, did not alter the status of Jerusalem, which was still called Ael=
ia
Capitolina, for another 11 years. In 324 C.E. Constantine vanquished his
political rival, Licinius, and brought the eastern portions of the Roman
empire, including the Land of Israel,
under his control, establishing his capital in Byzantium, soon to be
Constatinople.
In 325 C.E. the first General Council of the Church was held in Nicaea, ne=
ar
Constatinople. The purpose of the conference was to sort out differences =
in
religious dogma. It was attended by 318 bishops from all over the Roman
empire, including Marcarius, Bishop of Jerusalem.
Marcarius told Helena, the mother of the Emperor Constantine, about the
dilapidated state of Jerusalems holy places, sites associated with events=
in
the last week of Jesus life.
Helena visited Jerusalem and shortly thereafter various religious relics b=
egan
to be discovered=B6 in and around the city, the most significant of these=
being
several crosses. Numerous legends abound concerning the discovery and
authentication of the true cross=B6. Of the various, often conflicting,
versions the fourth century church father Eusebius provides an important
description of the location of the rediscovered cross. Eusebius describes=
the
cross as being discovered in a cave buried beneath the Temple of
Venus-Aphrodite. This description is significant because it accounts for =
the
location of Christianitys holiest shrine in Jerusalem, the Church of the =
Holy
Sepulchre.
The discovery of these relics in Jerusalem at a time when Christianity had
just become the official religion of the Eastern Empire had important
repercussions for the citys development.
Jerusalem was transformed from a relatively insignificant, provincial city=
in
the Roman empire to the focus of pilgrimage and adoration by another major
religion in addition to Judaism. This would be the beginning of
inter-religious rivalry in the city, which would be joined three centuries
later by the advent of Islam.
In recognition of the citys new found importance, Constantine, together w=
ith
his mother Helena, commissioned the construction of the Anastasis -the Chu=
rch
of the Resurrection (the precursor of todays Church of the Holy Sepulchre=
)
and later the Eleona Church on the Mt. of Olives. The construction of the=
se
churches had a significant effect on the physical landscape of Jerusalem f=
or
several reasons:
1) The dismantling of major/large pagan sites in the city and the
construction of these monumental churches greatly altered the urban skylin=
e of
Jerusalem. - More on this when we describe the Anastasis and Eleona.
2) Building the Church of the Holy Sepulchre heralded a wave of construct=
ion
of other churches, monasteries, convents and hostels which transformed the
citys physical landscape both vertically and horizontally. - We will expa=
nd
on this subject when we discuss the Empress
Eudokia and the Madaba Map.
3) The wave of construction and intensified pilgrim traffic, must have
greatly improved the local economy, after years of relative dormancy duri=
ng
the period of Aelia Capitolina.
4) The focal point of cultic activity in Jerusalem shifted away from the
Temple Mount. In fact the Temple Mount became the local dump. This situa=
tion
was not accidental, but theologically desireable, perhaps even essential, =
to
the Christian rulers of Byzantine Jerusalem. Jesus predicted that Jerusal=
em
and the Temple would be totally destroyed and that no stone would remain
unturned=B6 (Luke 21, 6; Mark 13, 2; Matt. 24,2). During the Byzantine pe=
riod
Jerusalem was rebuilt on a monumental scale by Christians. Consequently,
leaving the Temple Mount in ruins took on a religious imperative, so much =
so
that Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem, expressed fear, in his Catechism, that th=
e
Jews would try to rebuild the Temple in order to refute Jesus prophecy.
The Anastasis and Eleona
The Anastasis and Eleona were the most important churches built in fourth
century Jerusalem. They owe their importance to the fact that they were
erected in the very beginning of the Byzantine period by the Emperor
Constantine and his mother Helena. As such, they constitute two of four
churches built by Helena and Constantine in the Land of Israel.
The archeologist Michael Avi Yonah provides us with a concise description =
of
the fourth
century Anastasis in his Saga of the Holy City: The grave at the Anastas=
is
(Place of the Resurrection) was surrounded by columns and domed over by =
a
rotunda, the predecessor of the rotunda in the present-day Church of the H=
oly
Sepulchre. Golgotha was left in an open courtyard; a splendid basilica th=
e
normal type was built east of it for the services connected with the Holy
Sepulchre. It was approached by a flight of stairs ending before three gr=
eat
doors. This basilica was distinguished from all other Christian churches
because it faced towards the West...The entire building was decorated lavi=
shly
in marble, gold and mosaics. The capitals of the twelve columns surroundi=
ng
the Sepulchre...were of pure silver=B6.
The Eleona was erected on the Mount of Olives in 326 C.E. It commemorates=
the
place where, according to Christian tradition Jesus taught his disciples t=
he
most basic prayer in Christianity, which is known as the Lords Prayer=B6=
. The
early 20th century French archeologist, Father L.H. Vincent sketched a
reconstruction of the Eleona on the basis of archeological remnants of the
original fourth century structure in the court of the Pater Noster church =
on
the Mt. of Olives. Vincent describes a basilica divided into three halls:=
a
narrow narthex; an open atrium; and a sanctuary with an altar and apse in =
the
east.
Jews in Byzantine Jerusalem
The Roman Emperor Hadrian forbade Jews to live in Jerusalem (Aelia Capitol=
ina)
or its general surroundings. Despite this prohibition, rabbinic and Chris=
tian
sources indicate that there was a Jewish presence in and around Jerusalem
during the Roman period. In the Byzantine period we hear of a similar
prohibition. The Byzantine historian Euthycius reports that Constantine
forbade Jews to live in Jerusalem or even pass through the city. It is
unclear whether this is the continuation of an already existing Roman
ordinance or the promulgation of a new policy by the Emperor Constantine.
Hadrians prohibition specifically mentions the surrounding region of
Jerusalem, in addition to the city proper. Euthycius mentions no such
prohibition regarding the citys periphery.
Apparently Jews received special permission to enter Jerusalem on the Nint=
h of
Av, the traditional day of mourning for the destruction of the Temple. Th=
e
Bordeaux Pilgrim writes in his Itinerary that the Jews came to a certain
perforated stone...once a year=B6, where they would lament with wailing =
and
tear their clothing=B6. The fourth-fifth century church father Jerome als=
o
mentions this practice. Where did these Jewish mourners come from? Midra=
shic
literature refers to Jewish mourners coming from the Galilee, but Professo=
r
Joshua Schwartz of Bar Ilan University cites Christian sources which show =
that
they came from the nearby region of Judea, as well.
Julian the Apostate - An Attempt to Rebuild the Temple or Why it pays to b=
uy
earthquake insurance!
In 361 C.E. a dedicated pagan, known today as Julian the Apostate, became
emperor. He ruled for two years and actively sought to bring back Roman
paganism at the expense of Christianity. For a combination of religious =
and
political reasons Julian decided to allow Jews to return to Jerusalem and
ordered them to rebuild the Temple. The church father Sozomenous claims t=
hat
he even provided public money=B6 to fund the construction and renew the
sacrificial cult. By reconstructing the Temple Julian may have sought to
discredit Jesus prophecy about its destruction, as Sozomenous claims in h=
is
Ecclesiastical History; or he may have also been motivated by the strateg=
ic
consideration that his enemys enemy was his friend=B6, and sought to dev=
elop a
political alliance with the Jews.
Regardless of the motives, Jews returned to the city and, according to the
church father Philostorgious, even erected a synagogue near the site of th=
e
Temple. Another church father, Rufinus, claims that Jews came to Jerusale=
m
from every place and every province=B6. Construction began in earnest.
Sozomenous states that the Jews brought skillful artisans, collected
materials, cleared the ground...even the women carried heaps of earth, and
brought their necklaces and other female ornaments towards defraying the
expense=B6.
At this time we may find the beginnings of Jewish reverence for the Wester=
n
Wall. Graffiti carved on the Western Wall bearing a messianic verse from
Isaiah may have been written at this time. In Exodus Rabba, Rabbi Aha st=
ates
that the Shechina (divine presence) never departed from the Western Wall=B6=
.
Another midrash from this period claims that the Western wall was built wi=
th
donations from the poor and therefore could not be destroyed, while the ot=
her
walls, which were built by the rich, didnt escape destruction.
Construction did not continue for very long. In May 363 C.E. an earthquak=
e,
and subsequent fire, caused local officials to halt work on the Temple. A=
t
the same time Julians death in a war with the Persians, and replacement b=
y a
Christian Emperor named Jovian, brought the restoration project to an end.
Excavations conducted by Prof. Benjamin Mazar at the southwest corner of t=
he
Temple Mount, uncovered buildings containing a thick layer of ash, indicat=
ing
their destruction by fire. Associated coins show that the last period of
occupation for these buildings was at the end of Julians reign (362-363
C.E.).
The Empress Eudokia Expands City
The fifth century was a tumultuous time in Jerusalems history. While the
citys population swelled, (the archeologist Prof. M. Avi Yonah estimates =
its
population to have been 50,000 - 70,000), a doctrinal dispute in the churc=
h
resulted in a rebellion by local monks against the Patriarch, which had to=
be
supressed by imperial troops. The Barbarian invasion reached Rome and som=
e of
that citys aristocratic families sought refuge in the east, including
Jerusalem. Family matters in the Byzantine court were likewise; when the
Empress Eudokia separated from the Emperor Theodosius II, she settled in
Jerusalem and embarked on several ambitious construction projects. Just
outside of todays Damascus gate she built a church in honor of St. Stephe=
n,
the first Christian martyr. However, her most significant contribution to
Jerusalems urban form resulted from the construction of a different churc=
h
above the Siloam Pool. (Some of its ruins can be still be seen there toda=
y).
As a result of the construction of this church, the citys walls were
extended dramatically to the south, encompassing the hill of the Ophel and=
Mt.
Zion. Portions of this wall were discovered in excavations conducted F.J.
Bliss and A.C. Dickie in 1896.
At this time Jews from the Galilee petitioned Eudokia for permission to vi=
sit
Jerusalem. Their request was granteed and they may have even been allowed=
to
settle in the city. Apparently a Jewish community was reestablished and
continued to exist throughout the rest of the Byzantine period, because we
hear of various attacks upon Jews in Jerusalem by local Christians.
Justinian Jerusalem - Splendor Before The Fall
The sixth century had a turbulent beginning in the Land of Israel. There =
was
a series of Samaritan rebellions and as a result several churches on the
outskirts of Jerusalem were destroyed. The aftershocks of a major split =
in
the Church, between Orthodox and Monophysites Christians was still being f=
elt
throughout the Byzantine empire. Against this background Justinian became
emperor in 527 C.E. Justinian was a strong ruler. He restored order and
embarked on a massive program of building through out the empire. In
Jerusalrm he was responsible for two major edifices; the Nea Church and th=
e
Byzantine Cardo.
The Nea=B6, officially called the New (nea) Church of St. Mary, was the l=
argest
Byzantine church erected in the city. Procopius, a Byzantine court
historian, tells us that Justinian chose the highest of the hills=B6 for =
this
structure. When the land area at its crest proved insufficient for a buil=
ding
of this scale, he errected an elaborate system of vault to sustain the
churchs southern section. These vaults were discovered by Prof. Nahman
Avigad during archeological excavations next to the parking lot of the Jew=
ish
Quarter, where it can be seen today. Two minor apses of this church may b=
e
viewed nearby.
The Cardo Maximus=B6 was the main street of Roman Jerusalem. Justinian
extended the Cardo south into the area of todays Jewish Quarter, (where i=
t
may be visited). This extension was important to Jerusalems urban
development, since the smaller Roman city never reached this area. The
Byzantine Cardo is depicted on the Madaba Map as a wide collonaded avenue,
with a red tile roof, which crossed the city from north to south. It was =
one
of the widest (22 m.) city streets in the Byzantine empire and the site of
numerous religious processions ( between the Holy Sepulchre and the Nea), =
in
addition to being a major marketplace.
The Madaba Map
The Madaba mosaic is the oldest known map of Jerusalem. It was the floor =
of a
sixth century Byzantine church. The map depicts the entire Holy Land, wit=
h
Jerusalem, at its center, displayed larger and in greater detail than any
other settlement. The city appears as an oval, surrounded by a wall, towe=
rs
and gates. At the citys northern gate is a square with a large pillar. =
The
Cardo Maximus and Cardo Minimus are depicted as two collonaded streets lea=
ding
away from the square. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Nea Church=
a
presented in pictorial form alongside the Cardo Maximus. The artisan who
constructed this map was, apparently, a Byzantine Christian, and he
exaggerated things which were important to him. As a result the Church of=
the
Holy Sepulchre appears in the maps center and has taken on the proportions=
of
a small sky-scraper. Despite this and other subjective elements the map g=
ives
us an important portrayal of sixth century Jerusalem and even assisted=B6
archeologists searching for the Cardo 1400 years later.
The Persian Invasion - The End of Byzantine Jerusalem
In May 614 C.E. the Persian army under the leadership of King Chosroes II
conquered Jerusalem, destroying all the chuches and monasteries in the cit=
y
and its immediate vicinity. Persian control of the city didnt last long; =
in
629 Jerusalem reverted to Byzantine rule, after the Emperor Heraclius wage=
d a
successful campaign against the Persians. This too proved to be a brief
interlude. In 638 C.E. the city was conquered by the Moslem Caliph Omar.